Rote memorisation can only take you so far—true exam success comes from clear conceptual clarity. This comprehensive 10th Science Concept-wise Study Material is designed to break down tough topics into simple, digestible explanations. From understanding chemical bonding and balancing redox reactions to mastering human physiology and electric circuits, our module-by-module approach clarifies the core 'why' and 'how' behind every scientific principle, making learning effortless and long-lasting.
10th Quarterly Exam Question Papers and Answer Keys
10th Half Yearly Exam Question Papers and Answer Keys
10th Public Exam Question Papers and Answer Keys
10th First Revision Test Question Papers and Answer Keys
10th Second Revision Test Question Papers and Answer Keys
10th Third Revision Test Question Papers and Answer Keys
Complete Study Guide
1. Define Inertia. Give its Classification.
Inertia: The inherent property of a body to resist any change in its state of rest or motion.
Types: Inertia of rest • Inertia of motion • Inertia of direction
2. Classify the types of force based on their application.
• Like parallel force
• Unlike parallel force
3. If a 5 N and a 15 N forces are acting opposite to one another. Find the resultant force and the direction of action of the resultant force.
Fnet = F2 - F1 = 15 N - 5 N = 10 N
Direction: The direction of Fnet is that of the 15 N force.
| S.No | Mass | Weight |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | Quantity of matter in the body | Gravitational force on the body |
| 2 | Scalar quantity | Vector quantity |
| 3 | Unit: kilogram (kg) | Unit: newton (N) |
| 4 | Fundamental quantity | Derived quantity |
5. Define Moment of a couple.
Moment of couple = Force × Perpendicular distance (M = F × d)
6. State the principle of moments.
Moment in clockwise direction = Moment in anticlockwise direction (F1 × d1 = F2 × d2)
7. State Newton's Second Law.
The force acting on a body is directly proportional to the rate of change of linear momentum of the body. F = ma
8. Why is a spanner with a long handle preferred to tighten screws in heavy vehicles?
Long handle gives high torque with less force. Moment of force = F × d — increasing d increases torque.
9. While catching a cricket ball, the fielder lowers his hands backwards. Why?
Increases time of impact. Reduces force and impulse on hands.
10. How does an astronaut float in a space shuttle?
Space station and astronauts have equal acceleration. They are in a state of free fall. This condition is called weightlessness.
Inertia: The inherent property of a body to resist any change in its state of rest or motion.
Types with examples:
• Inertia of rest: To resist change in state of rest. Example: Leaves fall down after shaking a branch.
• Inertia of motion: To resist change in state of motion. Example: An athlete runs some distance before jumping.
• Inertia of direction: To resist change in direction. Example: While driving a car in a sharp turn.
• First Law (Law of Inertia): Everybody continues to be in its state of rest or uniform motion along a straight line unless acted upon by an external force.
• Second Law: The force acting on a body is directly proportional to the rate of change of linear momentum. (F = ma)
• Third Law (Action & Reaction): For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. (FB = -FA)
Initial momentum = mu
Final momentum = mv
Change in momentum = mv - mu
By Newton's second law: F ∝ (Change in momentum) / time
F ∝ (mv - mu) / t
F = k × m(v - u) / t
F = ma (where k = 1 in SI units)
Statement: There is no change in the linear momentum of a system of bodies as long as no net external force acts on them.
Proof: For two bodies A and B:
By Newton's third law: FA = -FB
m2(v2 - u2) / t = -m1(v1 - u1) / t
m1v1 + m2v2 = m1u1 + m2u2
Conclusion: Sum of momentum after collision = Sum of momentum before collision.
Based on law of conservation of linear momentum and Newton's third law. Fuel burns, producing high-velocity exhaust gases backwards. Rocket gains forward momentum. Mass decreases with altitude until it reaches escape velocity.
Statement: Every particle of matter attracts every other particle with a force:
• Directly proportional to product of their masses.
• Inversely proportional to square of distance between them.
Derivation:
F ∝ m1m2
F ∝ 1 / r2
Combining: F ∝ m1m2 / r2 ⇒ F = G m1m2 / r2
where G = 6.674 × 10-11 N m2 kg-2.
• To find mass and radius of Earth.
• To discover new stars and planets.
• To explain germination of roots.
• To predict path of heavenly bodies.
• To find mass of stars.
1. What is Refractive Index?
Refractive Index (μ) = Speed of light in vacuum (c) / Speed of light in medium (v)
2. State Snell's law.
sin i / sin r = μ2 / μ1
3. Draw a ray diagram to show the image formed by a convex lens when the object is placed between F and 2F.
(Diagram shows real, inverted, magnified image formed beyond 2F.)
4. Define dispersion of light.
Splitting of white light into its component colours while passing through a transparent medium.
5. State Rayleigh's law of scattering.
Scattering (S) ∝ 1 / λ4
| S.No | Convex Lens | Concave Lens |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | Thicker in middle | Thinner in middle |
| 2 | Converging lens | Diverging lens |
| 3 | Produces real images | Produces virtual images |
| 4 | Treats long sight | Treats short sight |
7. What is power of accommodation of eye?
Ability of the eye lens to focus nearby as well as distant objects.
8. What are the causes of "Myopia"?
Lengthening of eyeball. Shortening of focal length. Image formed before retina.
9. Why does the sky appear blue in colour?
Blue light has shorter wavelength. It scatters more in the atmosphere.
10. Why are traffic signals red in colour?
Red has longest wavelength. It scatters least and can be seen from long distance.
11. Write the applications of convex lens.
Used as camera lenses • Used as magnifying lenses • Used in microscopes • Used to treat long sight.
12. Write the applications of concave lens.
Used as eye lens of Galilean Telescope • Used in spy hole in doors • Used to treat short sight.
13. Write the applications of a simple microscope.
Used by watch repairers • Used to read small letters • Used to observe parts of a flower • Used to observe fingerprints.
• Light is a form of energy.
• Travels in straight lines.
• Does not need a medium.
• Speed in vacuum = 3 × 108 m/s.
• c = νλ — violet has lowest λ, red has highest λ.
• Rule 1: Ray passing through optic centre → goes undeviated.
• Rule 2: Ray parallel to principal axis → passes through principal focus.
• Rule 3: Ray passing through principal focus → goes parallel to principal axis.
| S.No | Myopia (Short sight) | Hypermetropia (Long sight) |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | Eyeball lengthened | Eyeball shortened |
| 2 | Nearby objects seen clearly | Distant objects seen clearly |
| 3 | Focal length reduced | Focal length increased |
| 4 | Treated by concave lens | Treated by convex lens |
| 5 | Image formed before retina | Image formed behind retina |
Construction: Two convex lenses — objective lens (near object) and eyepiece (near eye). Both fixed in a narrow tube.
Working: Object placed beyond F of objective → real, inverted, magnified image A'B' formed. This image acts as object for eyepiece. Eyepiece forms virtual, enlarged, erect final image A''B''.
1. Define one calorie.
Amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water through 1°C.
| Type | Dimension Changed | Unit |
|---|---|---|
| Linear expansion | Length | K-1 |
| Areal expansion | Area | K-1 |
| Cubical expansion | Volume | K-1 |
3. What is coefficient of cubical expansion?
ΔV / V0 = αv ΔT • SI unit: K-1.
4. State Boyle's law.
At constant temperature, volume of a fixed mass of gas is inversely proportional to its pressure. PV = constant.
5. State Charles's law (law of volume).
At constant pressure, volume of a gas is directly proportional to its temperature. V / T = constant.
| S.No | Real Gas | Ideal Gas |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | Atoms interact with each other | No interaction |
| 2 | Does not obey gas laws perfectly | Obeys gas laws |
| 3 | Has force of attraction | Negligible force of attraction |
7. What is coefficient of real expansion?
Ratio of true rise in volume of liquid per degree rise in temperature to its unit volume. Unit: K-1.
8. What is coefficient of apparent expansion?
Ratio of apparent rise in volume of liquid per degree rise in temperature to its unit volume. Unit: K-1.
9. State Avogadro's Law.
At constant pressure and temperature, volume of a gas is directly proportional to number of atoms or molecules. V ∝ n
10. What is Avogadro's number?
NA = 6.023 × 1023 mol-1.
From Boyle's law: PV = constant
From Charles's law: V / T = constant
From Avogadro's law: V / n = constant
Combining: PV / nT = constant ⇒ PV = nRT, where R = 8.31 J mol-1 K-1.
1. Define the unit of current.
SI unit: Ampere (A). 1 A = 1 C / 1 s. One coulomb of charge flows per second.
2. What happens to the resistance as the conductor is made thicker?
Resistance decreases because R ∝ 1 / A.
3. Why is tungsten metal used in bulbs, but not in fuse wires?
Tungsten has high melting point. If used in fuse, it would not melt during overcurrent, damaging appliances.
4. Name any two devices which work on the heating effect of electric current.
• Electric heater • Electric iron
5. Define electric potential and potential difference.
Electric potential: Work done to bring a unit positive charge from infinity to a point.
Potential difference: Work done to move a unit charge between two points. V = W / Q
6. What is the role of the earth wire in domestic circuits?
Provides a low resistance path to current.
7. State Ohm's law.
At constant temperature, current (I) is directly proportional to potential difference (V). V = IR
| S.No | Resistivity (ρ) | Conductivity (σ) |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | ρ = RA / L | σ = 1 / ρ |
| 2 | Unit: Ohm metre (Ω m) | Unit: Ohm-1 metre-1 (Ω-1 m-1) |
9. What connection is used in domestic appliances and why?
Parallel connection. Reason: Provides equal voltage to all appliances.
(a) Rate of flow of charge through a conductor. I = Q / t
(b) Ampere (A). 1 A = 1 C / 1 s.
(c) Ammeter; Connected in series.
(a) H = I2Rt. Heat produced is directly proportional to square of current, resistance, and time.
(b) High resistivity and high melting point.
(c) Fuse wire has low melting point. For large current, it melts and breaks the circuit, protecting the appliance.
Power from transformer → Main box (fuse box + meter). Two wires: Red (live), Black (neutral) — connected via fuse to meter. Passes to main switch with two circuits: 5A and 15A. All circuits in parallel provide equal voltage.
| Column A | Column B |
|---|---|
| Ammeter | Measures current |
| Voltmeter | Measures potential difference |
| Galvanometer | Detects small current |
| Resistor | Opposes current flow |
| Diode | Allows current in one direction |
| Column A | Column B |
|---|---|
| Electric current | Ampere |
| Potential difference | Volt |
| Specific resistance | Ohm metre |
| Electrical power | Watt |
| Electrical energy | Joule |
(a) Bright picture quality • Less power consumption • Thin size • Reliable • Longer lifespan
(b) Not harmful • Low power consumption • Low cost • No energy loss • Available in different colours
1. What is a longitudinal wave?
Particles vibrate along the direction of wave propagation.
2. What is the audible range of frequency?
20 Hz to 20,000 Hz.
3. What is the minimum distance needed for an echo?
17.2 m.
4. What will be the frequency of sound having 0.20 m wavelength, travelling at 331 m/s?
n = v / λ = 331 / 0.2 = 1655 Hz.
5. Name three animals which can hear ultrasonic vibrations.
Mosquitoes, Dogs, Bats.
6. Why does sound travel faster on a rainy day than on a dry day?
Humidity increases → velocity of sound increases.
7. Why does an empty vessel produce more sound than a filled one?
Amplitude of vibration is greater in air than in liquid.
8. Explain why the ceiling of concert halls is curved.
Curved surface increases intensity by multiple reflection, reaching all corners.
9. Mention two cases where there is no Doppler effect in sound.
• Source and listener both at rest.
• Moving at constant distance from each other.
• Density: Speed decreases as density increases. v ∝ 1 / √d
• Temperature: Speed increases with temperature. v ∝ √T
• Humidity: Speed increases with humidity.
(a) Frequencies above 20,000 Hz.
(b) Ultrasonic communication (e.g., bats); Ultrasonic cleaning (removes impurities); Ultrasonography (medical imaging).
(c) Mosquitoes, Dogs, Bats.
Echo: Sound reflected back after striking a surface.
(a) Minimum time gap: 0.1 s; Minimum distance: 17.2 m.
(b) Obstetric ultrasonography; Echocardiogram.
(c) v = 2d / t, where d = distance to reflecting surface, t = time for echo.
1. Who discovered natural radioactivity? Henri Becquerel.
2. Which radioactive material is present in pitchblende ore? Uranium-235.
3. Write any two elements used to induce radioactivity. Boron, Aluminium.
4. Which EM radiation is emitted during natural radioactivity? Gamma (γ) rays.
5. Element A emits α-particle and produces 104Rf259. Find mass number and atomic number of A.
α-decay: 106A263 → 104Rf259 + 2He4 ⇒ Atomic number = 106, Mass number = 263.
6. What is the average energy released from a single fission? 3.2 × 10-11 J (or ~200 MeV).
7. Which radiation causes genetic disease? Gamma radiation.
8. What is the safe radiation dose? 100 mR per week (or safe limit up to 600 R lethal dose).
9. Give SI unit of radioactivity. Becquerel (Bq).
10. Which material protects from radiation? Lead gloves and aprons.
| Natural Radioactivity | Artificial Radioactivity |
|---|---|
| Cannot be controlled | Can be controlled |
| Spontaneous process | Induced process |
| Atomic number > 83 | Atomic number < 83 |
| Emits α, β, γ | Emits neutrons, positrons |
2. Define critical mass. Minimum mass of fissile material needed to sustain a chain reaction.
3. Define one roentgen. Quantity of radioactive substance that produces 2.58 × 10-4 C in 1 kg of air.
4. State Soddy and Fajan's displacement law. α-decay reduces mass number by 4 and atomic number by 2; β-decay keeps mass number same and increases atomic number by 1.
5. Give the functions of control rods in a nuclear reactor. Control neutrons to control chain reaction. Example: Boron, Cadmium rods.
6. In Japan, some newborn children have congenital diseases. Why? Due to radiation from atom bombs in WWII affecting pregnant mothers.
7. Mr. Ramu works as an X-ray technician without a lead apron. What suggestions? Wear lead apron, gloves, and use dosimeters.
8. What is stellar energy? Heat and light energy from stars due to nuclear fusion.
9. Give uses of radioisotopes in agriculture. Increase crop productivity; Kill insects and parasites.
• Controlled chain reaction: Neutrons maintained at one per fission; Energy released slowly for constructive use (e.g., nuclear reactor).
• Uncontrolled chain reaction: Neutrons multiply indefinitely; Huge energy released instantly (e.g., atom bomb).
| Property | Alpha (α) | Beta (β) | Gamma (γ) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Particle | Helium nucleus | Electron | Photon |
| Charge | +2e | -e | Neutral |
| Ionizing power | Very high | High | Low |
| Penetration | Low (paper) | High (metal foil) | Very high (lead) |
| Deflection | In electric/magnetic fields | Yes (opposite to α) | No |
| Speed | ~1/10 to 1/20 c | ~9/10 c | c (speed of light) |
Nuclear reactor: Device where nuclear fission produces electricity.
• Fuel: Uranium (fissile material).
• Moderator: Slows neutrons (Graphite/Heavy water).
• Control rods: Control neutrons (Boron/Cadmium).
• Coolant: Removes heat (Water/Air/Helium).
• Protection wall: Prevents radiation (Concrete/Lead).
1. Define Relative Atomic Mass.
Relative Atomic Mass = Average mass of isotopes / (1/12th mass of carbon-12 atom)
| Isotope | Mass (amu) | % Abundance |
|---|---|---|
| 16O | 16 | 99.757 |
| 17O | 17 | 0.038 |
| 18O | 18 | 0.205 |
3. Define Atomicity. Number of atoms in a molecule. Example: H2 → atomicity = 2.
4. Give two examples of hetero diatomic molecules. HCl, CO.
5. What is molar volume of a gas? 22.4 litres at STP.
6. Find percentage of nitrogen in ammonia. %N = (14 / 17) × 100 = 82.35%.
1. Calculate number of water molecules in one drop (0.18 g).
Number = 6.023 × 1023 × 0.18 / 18 = 6.023 × 1021.
2. N2 + 3H2 → 2NH3: 1 mole N2 (28 g) + 3 moles H2 (6 g) → 2 moles NH3 (34 g).
3. Calculate number of moles in:
(i) 27 g Al ⇒ Moles = 27 / 27 = 1 Mole
(ii) 1.51 × 1023 molecules NH4Cl ⇒ Moles = 1.51 × 1023 / 6.023 × 1023 = 0.25 Moles.
4. Give salient features of modern atomic theory: Atom is divisible • Smallest particle taking part in chemical reactions • Mass can be converted to energy (E = mc2) • Atoms may not combine in simple ratios always • Same element may have different atomic masses (isotopes) • Different elements may have same atomic mass (isobars) • Artificial transmutation is possible.
5. Derive relation between relative molecular mass and vapour density: Relative molecular mass = 2 × Vapour Density.
6. CaCO3 → CaO + CO2: (i) Moles of CaCO3 = 1 mole • (ii) Gram molecular mass = 100 g • (iii) Moles of CO2 = 1 mole.
7. Calculate grams in: (i) 2 moles H2 = 4 g • (ii) 3 moles Cl2 = 213 g • (iii) 5 moles S8 = 1280 g • (iv) 4 moles P4 = 496 g.
| S.No | Atoms | Molecules |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | Smallest particle of element | Smallest particle of compound/element |
| 2 | Cannot exist free (except inert gases) | Can exist free |
| 3 | Highly reactive | Less reactive |
| 4 | No chemical bond | Have chemical bonds |
9. State Avogadro's law and applications: Law: At constant P & T, V ∝ n. Applications: Explains Gay-Lussac's law • Determines atomicity of gases • Finds molecular formula • Determines gram molar volume • Relates molecular mass and vapour density.
1. A is reddish brown metal. With O2 at <1370 K gives black B; >1370 K gives red C. Identify:
A = Copper (Cu)
B = CuO: 2Cu + O2 (<1370 K) → 2CuO
C = Cu2O: 4Cu + O2 (>1370 K) → 2Cu2O
2. A is silvery white metal, forms B with O2 at 800°C; alloy used in aircraft: A = Aluminium • B = Al2O3.
3. What is rust? Give formation equation: Hydrated ferric oxide. 4Fe + 3O2 + xH2O → 2Fe2O3·xH2O.
4. State two conditions for rusting: Moisture/water, Oxygen.
5. Define alloy: Homogeneous mixture of two or more metals (e.g., Bronze).
6. What is amalgam? Give example: Alloy of mercury with a metal (e.g., Silver-tin amalgam).
1. Metal A (2, 8, 18, 1). In air forms green B. With conc. H2SO4 → C + D (gas): A = Copper (Cu) • B = CuCO3·Cu(OH)2 • C = CuSO4 • D = SO2.
2. Metal A in period 3, group 13. With steam → B; with strong alkali → C: A = Aluminium • B = Al2O3 (2Al + 3H2O → Al2O3 + 3H2) • C = NaAlO2 (2Al + 2NaOH + 2H2O → 2NaAlO2 + 3H2).
3. Which acid makes aluminium passive? Why? Nitric acid; Forms an oxide protective layer on its surface.
4. (a) Identify bond in HF. (b) Basis? (c) How electronegativity varies in periodic table? (a) Ionic bond • (b) Electronegativity difference • (c) Period: Increases left to right; Group: Decreases top to bottom.
5. Methods to prevent corrosion: Alloying (e.g., Stainless steel); Surface coating (Galvanization, Electroplating, Anodizing, Cathodic protection).
1. Define solution: Homogeneous mixture of two or more substances.
2. What is binary solution? Solution consisting of one solute and one solvent.
| Type | Example |
|---|---|
| Gas in liquid | Soda water |
| Solid in liquid | Sugar solution |
| Solid in solid | Alloy |
| Gas in gas | Air |
4. Define aqueous and non-aqueous solutions: Aqueous: Water as solvent (e.g., NaCl in water). Non-aqueous: Other liquid as solvent (e.g., S in CS2).
5. Define volume percentage: Volume percentage = (Volume of solute / Volume of solution) × 100.
6. Why do aquatic animals live more in cold regions? Solubility of O2 in water is higher at lower temperatures.
7. Define hydrated salt: Ionic substance containing water of crystallisation.
8. Why does hot saturated CuSO4 form crystals on cooling? Solubility decreases with decrease in temperature.
| Hygroscopic | Deliquescent |
|---|---|
| Conc. H2SO4, Silica gel | CaCl2, CuSO4·5H2O, Gypsum |
1. Explain saturated and unsaturated solutions: Saturated: No more solute can dissolve at given temperature (e.g., 36 g NaCl in 100 g H2O at 25°C). Unsaturated: Contains less solute than saturated level (e.g., 10 g NaCl in 100 g H2O).
2. Factors affecting solubility: Nature of solute & solvent ("Like dissolves like"); Temperature (Solids in liquids: solubility increases with temperature; Gases in liquids: solubility decreases with temperature); Pressure (Gas solubility increases with pressure).
3. (a) What happens when MgSO4·7H2O is heated? (b) Define solubility: (a) Loses 7 water molecules: MgSO4·7H2O → MgSO4 + 7H2O. (b) Solubility = (Mass of solute / Mass of solvent) × 100.
| S.No | Hygroscopic | Deliquescent |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | Absorb moisture, do not dissolve | Absorb moisture and dissolve |
| 2 | Physical state unchanged | Change physical state |
| 3 | Amorphous solids | Crystalline solids |
| 4 | e.g., Silica gel | e.g., CaCl2 |
5. A: blue crystalline salt. Heating → B (loses colour). Water to B → A. Identify: A = CuSO4·5H2O • B = CuSO4. Reaction: CuSO4·5H2O ↔ CuSO4 + 5H2O.
1. KCl(aq) + AgNO3(aq) → ? KCl + AgNO3 → AgCl↓ (white) + KNO3.
2. Why does reaction rate increase with temperature? Heat breaks bonds in reactants faster and increases collision frequency.
3. Define combination reaction with exothermic example: Two or more reactants form one product. Example: C + O2 → CO2 + heat.
| S.No | Reversible | Irreversible |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | Can be reversed | Cannot be reversed |
| 2 | Attains equilibrium | No equilibrium |
| 3 | Slow | Fast |
| 4 | Bidirectional | Unidirectional |
1. What are thermolysis reactions? Decomposition by heat. Example: CaCO3 → CaO + CO2.
2. Explain double displacement reactions with examples: Ions exchange between two compounds. (i) Precipitation: Pb(NO3)2 + 2KI → PbI2↓ + 2KNO3; (ii) Neutralization: HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H2O.
3. How does pH play a role in everyday life? Body pH: 7.0-7.8 • Blood pH: 7.4 • Saliva pH: 6.5-7.5 • Soil pH important for agriculture • Rainwater pH < 7 → acid rain.
4. What is chemical equilibrium? Its characteristics? Rate of forward reaction = Rate of backward reaction. Characteristics: Dynamic • Constant volume • Concentrations remain unchanged.
| Factor | Effect on Rate |
|---|---|
| Nature of reactant | More reactive → higher rate |
| Concentration | High conc. → high rate |
| Temperature | High temp. → high rate |
| Pressure (gases) | High pressure → high rate |
| Catalyst | Increases rate |
6. Solid A → B + gas C. Gas C turns water acidic. Identify: A = CaCO3, B = CaO, C = CO2.
7. Can a nickel spatula stir CuSO4 solution? No. Nickel is more reactive than copper; it will displace Cu.
1. Name simplest ketone and its formula: Acetone, CH3COCH3.
| Compound | Class | Formula |
|---|---|---|
| Propane | Acyclic | C3H8 |
| Benzene | Aromatic | C6H6 |
| Cyclobutane | Alicyclic | C4H8 |
| Furan | Heterocyclic | C4H4O |
3. How is ethanoic acid prepared from ethanol? By oxidation in the presence of alkaline KMnO4: CH3CH2OH → CH3COOH + H2O.
4. How do detergents cause water pollution? Remedial measures: Non-biodegradable branched hydrocarbons cause pollution. Remedy: Use linear hydrocarbon detergents.
| S.No | Soap | Detergent |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | Fatty acid salts | Sulphonic acid salts |
| 2 | Ineffective in hard water | Effective in hard water |
| 3 | Forms scum | No scum |
| 4 | Biodegradable | Non-biodegradable |
| 5 | Poor foaming | Rich foaming |
| 6 | From animal/plant fats | From hydrocarbons |
| 7 | Ion: -COO-Na+ | Ion: -SO3-Na+ |
1. What is homologous series? Give three characteristics: Group of organic compounds with same general formula and similar properties. Characteristics: Differ by -CH2- unit • Same chemical reactions • Prepared by same general methods • Same functional group.
2. IUPAC name for CH3-CH2-CH2-OH: Step 1: 3 Carbon atoms → Root word: Prop • Step 2: Single bond → Suffix: ane • Step 3: Functional group -OH → ol • IUPAC name: Propan-1-ol.
3. How is ethanol manufactured from sugarcane? Molasses as raw material • Add nitrogen source and yeast • Fermentation occurs • Fractional distillation of wash gives ethanol.
4. Explain cleaning action of soap: Soap molecule: Polar head (hydrophilic), non-polar tail (hydrophobic). Non-polar tail traps dirt/oil, forms micelles in water, and micelles wash away dirt with water.
1. What is a collateral vascular bundle? Xylem lies towards the centre and phloem lies towards the periphery.
2. Where does the carbon that is used in photosynthesis come from? CO2 in air.
3. What is the common step in aerobic and anaerobic pathway? Glycolysis.
4. Name the phenomenon by which carbohydrates are oxidized to release ethyl alcohol: Anaerobic respiration (Fermentation).
5. Give an account on vascular bundle of dicot stem: Conjoint, collateral, open and endarch xylem; Arranged in the form of a ring around the pith.
6. Write a short note on mesophyll: Tissue between upper and lower epidermis; Differentiated into: Palisade parenchyma and Spongy parenchyma.
7. Name the three basic tissue systems in flowering plants: Dermal Tissue System • Ground Tissue System • Vascular Tissue System.
8. Structure of oxysomes: Composed of Head (F1), Stalk, and Base (F0).
9. What is photosynthesis and where in a cell does it occur? Process by which green plants make food using chlorophyll, water, CO2, sunlight. Occurs in chloroplast. Equation: 6CO2 + 12H2O → C6H12O6 + 6H2O + 6O2.
10. What is respiratory quotient? RQ = Volume of CO2 liberated / Volume of O2 consumed.
11. Why should the light dependent reaction occur before the light independent reaction? Light independent reaction needs ATP and NADPH2 produced in light reaction.
12. Write the reaction for photosynthesis: Chemical: 6CO2 + 12H2O → C6H12O6 + 6H2O + 6O2 • Word equation: Carbon dioxide + Water → Glucose + Water + Oxygen.
a) Monocot root and Dicot root
| Feature | Monocot Root | Dicot Root |
|---|---|---|
| Xylem | Polyarch | Tetrarch |
| Cambium | Absent | Present |
| Secondary growth | Absent | Present |
| Pith | Present | Absent |
| Conjunctive tissue | Sclerenchyma | Parenchyma |
| Aerobic Respiration | Anaerobic Respiration |
|---|---|
| Needs oxygen | No oxygen needed |
| More energy produced | Less energy produced |
| End products: CO2 + H2O | End products: Ethanol + CO2 |
| Example: Higher plants | Example: Yeast, bacteria |
• Differences: Light dependent needs sunlight, occurs in Grana, produces ATP, NADPH2, O2. Light independent needs no sunlight, occurs in Stroma, produces glucose.
• Reactants & Products: Light dependent reactants: Light, water, chlorophyll → Products: ATP, NADPH2, O2. Light independent reactants: CO2, ATP, NADPH2 → Products: Glucose.
• Location: Light dependent: Grana; Light independent: Stroma.
1. Common name of Hirudinaria granulosa: Indian Cattle Leech.
2. How does leech respire? Through the skin.
3. Dental formula of rabbit: 2033 / 1023.
4. How many pairs of testes in leech? 11 pairs.
5. How is diastema formed in rabbit? Gap between incisors and premolars due to absence of canines.
6. Organs attached to two bronchi: Lungs.
7. Organ acting as suction pump in leech: Pharynx.
8. What does CNS stand for? Central Nervous System.
9. Why are rabbit's teeth called heterodont? Teeth are of different types (incisors, premolars, molars).
10. How does leech suck blood? Three jaws cause Y-shaped wound; blood sucked by muscular pharynx.
11. Why are cartilaginous rings found in trachea of rabbit? Prevent collapse during breathing and ensure free passage of air.
12. Parasitic adaptations in leech: Suckers for attachment • Three jaws produce Y-wound • Hirudin prevents clotting • Pharynx acts as suction pump • Crop stores blood.
13. Locomotion in leech: (i) Looping/crawling: Muscle contraction and sucker attachment; (ii) Swimming: Undulating movements in water.
14. Male reproductive system of rabbit: Testes enclosed in scrotal sacs • Seminiferous tubules • Epididymis → Vas deferens • Urethra through penis.
15. Alimentary canal of rabbit: Mouth → Pharynx → Oesophagus → Stomach → Small intestine → Caecum → Large intestine → Rectum → Anus.
1. Two layered protective covering of heart: Pericardium.
2. Shape of RBC in human blood: Biconcave and disc-shaped.
3. Why is blood red? Due to haemoglobin in RBCs.
4. Cells found in lymph: White Blood Cells (WBC).
5. Valve associated with major arteries leaving ventricles: Semi-lunar valves.
6. Artery supplying blood to heart muscle: Coronary artery.
7. Opening and closing of stomata: Water entry → turgid guard cells → stomata open; Water loss → flaccid guard cells → stomata close.
8. What is cohesion? Force of attraction between water molecules.
9. Water pathway from root to leaf: Root hair → Root cortex → Xylem → Stem → Leaf → Stomata → Evaporation.
10. If transpiration > absorption: Leaves wilt/dry up, plant may die.
11. Structure & working of heart: 4 chambers (2 auricles, 2 ventricles); Right auricle receives deoxygenated blood, Left auricle receives oxygenated blood; Ventricles pump blood to lungs and body.
12. Double circulation: Blood passes through heart twice in one complete circuit.
13. Heart sounds: Lubb (closure of tricuspid/bicuspid valves); Dubb (closure of semi-lunar valves).
14. Importance of valves: Regulate unidirectional flow and prevent backflow of blood.
15. Rh factor: Discovered by Landsteiner & Wiener in Rhesus monkey.
| Feature | Artery | Vein |
|---|---|---|
| Wall | Thick, elastic, strong | Thin, non-elastic, weak |
| Valves | Absent | Present |
| Blood type | Oxygenated (except pulmonary) | Deoxygenated (except pulmonary) |
| Pressure | High | Low |
17. SA node as pacemaker: Initiates and regulates rhythmic impulse for heart beat.
18. Cardiac cycle timing (0.8 s total): Auricular systole: 0.1 s • Ventricular systole: 0.3 s • Ventricular diastole: 0.4 s.
19. Functions of blood: Transport O2, CO2, nutrients, hormones • Maintain body temperature & pH • Water balance • Defense against infections.
| Group | Antigen | Antibody | Donate To | Receive From |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| A | A | Anti-B | A, AB | A, O |
| B | B | Anti-A | B, AB | B, O |
| AB | A, B | None | AB | All (Universal Recipient) |
| O | None | Anti-A, B | All (Universal Donor) | O |
1. Define stimulus: Change in environmental condition causing response.
2. Parts of hind brain: Cerebellum, Pons, Medulla oblongata.
3. Structures protecting brain: Cranium, Meninges (Duramater, Arachnoid membrane, Piamater), CSF.
4. Example of conditioned reflex: Playing harmonium.
5. Link between nervous and endocrine systems: Hypothalamus.
6. Define reflex arc: Pathway followed by nerve impulses during a reflex action.
7. Voluntary vs Involuntary: Voluntary is under conscious control (e.g., eating); Involuntary is automatic (e.g., heartbeat).
8. Medullated vs Non-medullated fibres: Medullated has myelin sheath, nodes of Ranvier, fast transmission; Non-medullated lacks myelin sheath and nodes, slow transmission.
9. Structure and functions of brain: Forebrain (cerebrum, thalamus, hypothalamus — thinking, sensory); Midbrain (visual, auditory reflexes); Hindbrain (cerebellum, pons, medulla — posture, respiration, heartbeat).
10. Structure of neuron: Cyton (cell body), Dendrites (carry impulses to cyton), Axon (carries impulses away from cyton).
11. Classification of neurons: Unipolar (one process), Bipolar (two processes), Multipolar (many dendrites + one axon).
12. Structure of spinal cord: Located inside vertebral canal; H-shaped grey matter with posterior (sensory) and anterior (motor) horns; Central canal with CSF.
1. Hormone promoting male flowers in cucurbits: Gibberellins.
2. Name a synthetic auxin: 2,4-D.
3. Hormone inducing parthenocarpy in tomatoes: Gibberellins.
4. Hormone for milk secretion after childbirth: Prolactin.
5. Hormones regulating water and mineral metabolism: Mineralocorticoids (Aldosterone).
6. Emergency hormones: Epinephrine and Norepinephrine.
7. Dual gland (endocrine and exocrine): Pancreas.
8. Glands associated with kidneys: Adrenal glands.
9. What is bolting? Sudden internodal elongation followed by flowering in rosette plants; Induced by gibberellins.
10. Two physiological effects of ABA: Causes stomatal closure • Promotes abscission of leaves and fruits.
11. Prevent premature fruit drop: Spray auxins.
12. Endocrine vs Exocrine: Endocrine: Ductless, secrete hormones (e.g., Thyroid); Exocrine: Have ducts, secrete enzymes (e.g., Salivary gland).
13. Role of parathormone: Regulates calcium and phosphorus metabolism; maintains blood calcium.
14. Posterior pituitary hormones: Vasopressin (ADH — water reabsorption); Oxytocin (uterine contraction, milk ejection).
15. Personality hormone: Thyroid hormone — essential for physical, mental, and personality development.
16. Gaseous plant hormone: Ethylene — promotes fruit ripening, breaks dormancy, hastens senescence.
17. Physiological effects of gibberellins: Stimulates stem elongation, breaks dormancy, induces bolting, produces seedless fruits.
18. Conditions due to lack of ADH and insulin: Lack of ADH → Diabetes insipidus (excessive urination); Lack of insulin → Diabetes mellitus (excessive blood glucose).
1. Pollen grains to fertilize 10 ovules: 10 pollen grains.
2. Pollen germination site: Stigma.
3. Budding organisms: Yeast, Hydra.
4. Function of endosperm: Provides nourishment to developing embryo.
5. Hormone for uterine contractions: Oxytocin.
6. Enzyme in acrosome: Hyaluronidase.
7. World Menstrual Hygiene Day: May 28th.
8. Sites of fertilization and implantation: Fertilization: Fallopian tube; Implantation: Uterus.
9. Define triple fusion: Fusion of one sperm with secondary nucleus to form triploid primary endosperm nucleus (PEN).
10. Insect-pollinated flower features: Large, brightly coloured petals, pleasant scent, nectar.
11. Secondary sex organs in male: Vas deferens, epididymis, seminal vesicle, prostate gland, penis.
12. Colostrum: First milk secreted for 2-3 days after childbirth; rich in antibodies providing passive immunity to infant.
13. Pollen grain structure: A = Exine, B = Intine, C = Generative cell, D = Vegetative nucleus.
| Phase | Days | Ovary | Uterus |
|---|---|---|---|
| Menstrual | 1-5 | Primary follicles develop | Endometrium breaks down |
| Proliferative | 6-13 | Graafian follicle matures | Endometrium regenerates |
| Ovulatory | 14 | Ovulation occurs | Endometrium thickens |
| Secretory | 15-28 | Corpus luteum forms | Prepares for implantation |
15. Structure of ovule: Parts: Chalaza, Nucellus, Embryo sac, Antipodal cells, Secondary nucleus, Egg, Synergids, Integuments, Micropyle, Funicle.
1. Cross studying two pairs of contrasting characters: Dihybrid cross.
2. Condition when both alleles are identical: Homozygous.
3. Dominant trait: Axial flower position is dominant over terminal.
4. DNA segments responsible for inheritance: Genes.
5. Bond between nucleotides in DNA: Phosphodiester bond.
6. Why Mendel chose pea plant? Natural self-pollination, easy to cross, short lifespan, distinct contrasting traits.
7. Phenotype and Genotype: Phenotype: Observable physical appearance; Genotype: Genetic makeup.
8. Allosomes: Sex chromosomes (X and Y).
9. Okazaki fragments: Short segments of newly synthesized DNA on the lagging strand.
10. Monohybrid cross ratios: TT × tt → F1: All Tt (tall); F2: 1 TT : 2 Tt : 1 tt (Phenotypic ratio 3:1).
11. Dihybrid cross ratio: Phenotypic ratio = 9:3:3:1.
12. DNA Structure: Double helix; Base pairing: A = T (2 H-bonds), G ≡ C (3 H-bonds); Sugar-phosphate backbone; 10 base pairs per pitch (3.4 nm).
1. Dissimilar organs with same origin: Homologous organs.
2. Fossil bird: Archaeopteryx.
3. Study of fossils: Paleontology.
4. Connecting link: Archaeopteryx exhibits reptilian (teeth, claws) and avian (feathers, wings) features.
5. Ethnobotany: Study of traditional uses of native plants by indigenous cultures.
6. Fossil dating: Radio-carbon dating (C-14 method).
| Aspect | Homologous Organs | Analogous Organs |
|---|---|---|
| Origin | Common ancestor | Different ancestors |
| Structure | Similar | Different |
| Function | Different | Similar |
| Example | Human hand, bat wing | Bird wing, insect wing |
1. Man-made cereal: Triticale (6n).
2. Semi-dwarf rice gene: Dee-geo-woo-gen (DGWG).
3. Genetic engineering: Direct manipulation and transfer of genes into target organisms.
4. Types of stem cells: Embryonic stem cells and Adult stem cells.
5. Transgenic organisms: Organisms containing foreign gene sequences.
6. Two maize hybrids rich in lysine: Protina, Shakti.
7. Applications of DNA fingerprinting: Forensic investigation • Paternity dispute resolution • Pedigree analysis.
8. Somatic vs Germ line gene therapy: Somatic modifies body cells (non-heritable); Germ line modifies reproductive cells (heritable).
1. Psychotropic drugs: Drugs that alter mood, perception, and behavior by acting on the central nervous system.
2. Tobacco diseases: Lung cancer, oral cancer, bronchitis, coronary heart disease.
3. Metastasis: Spread of malignant cancerous cells to distant sites through bloodstream or lymph.
4. HIV transmission routes: Sexual intercourse with infected person • Contaminated needles • Transfusion of infected blood • Mother to child across placenta.
| Aspect | Cancer Cells | Normal Cells |
|---|---|---|
| Division | Uncontrolled | Controlled |
| Shape | Irregular | Regular |
| Lifespan | Immortal | Definite lifespan |
6. Type I vs Type II Diabetes: Type I (IDDM — Juvenile onset, complete lack of insulin, treated with insulin injections); Type II (NIDDM — Adult onset, receptor defect/insulin resistance, treated with diet/exercise/oral drugs).
1. If trees are cut down: Severe soil erosion, desertification, irregular rainfall, flash floods.
2. Agents of soil erosion: High speed winds, torrent water currents, landslides, deforestation, overgrazing.
3. Advantages of biogas: Eco-friendly, smokeless, leaves rich organic slurry manure, reduces greenhouse emissions.
4. Rainwater harvesting methods: Rooftop collection, check dams, recharge pits, percolation ponds.
5. Solid waste management hierarchy: Segregation • Composting • Incineration • Sanitary landfill.
1. What is Scratch? Software used to create interactive animations, cartoons, games, and music.
2. Editor parts: Script area, Block menu, Block palette.
3. Stage: The background area where sprites move, interact, and perform scripts.
4. Sprite: Characters or graphic objects that act upon scripts on the stage.
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